Stack Data Structure: CSU1051 - Shoolini U with dmj.one

Stack

1. Introduction to Stack

A stack is a linear data structure that follows the Last In First Out (LIFO) principle, meaning the last element added to the stack is the first element to be removed. This data structure has various applications in algorithms, computer memory management, and programming language implementation. In this article, we will delve into the intricacies of stacks, their relationship with other data structures, and their practical applications in computer science.

1.1 Basic Stack Operations

The two primary operations that can be performed on a stack are push and pop. Push is the process of adding an element to the top of the stack, while pop is the process of removing the top element from the stack. Additionally, the peek or top operation can be used to view the top element without removing it from the stack.

// Stack implementation in C++ using an array
#include <iostream>
#define MAX 10
class Stack {
  int top;
  int arr[MAX];

  public:
    Stack() { top = -1; }
    bool push(int x);
    int pop();
    int peek();
    bool isEmpty();
};

bool Stack::push(int x) {
  if (top >= MAX - 1) {
    std::cout << "Stack Overflow";
    return false;
  } else {
    arr[++top] = x;
    return true;
  }
}

int Stack::pop() {
  if (top < 0) {
    std::cout << "Stack Underflow";
    return 0;
  } else {
    return arr[top--];
  }
}

int Stack::peek() {
  if (top < 0) {
    std::cout << "Stack is Empty";
    return 0;
  } else {
    return arr[top];
  }
}

bool Stack::isEmpty() {
  return (top < 0);
}

int main() {
  Stack stack;

  stack.push(10);
  stack.push(20);
  stack.push(30);
  stack.push(40);

  std::cout << "Stack top is: " << stack.peek() << std::endl;
  std::cout << "Popping an element: " << stack.pop() << std::endl;
  std::cout << "Stack top is: " << stack.peek() << std::endl;

  if (stack.isEmpty()) {
    std::cout << "Stack is empty" << std::endl;
  } else {
    std::cout << "Stack is not empty" << std::endl;
  }

  return 0;
}

In the above implementation, an array of fixed size MAX is used to store the stack elements. The push operation adds an element to the top of the stack, while the pop operation removes the top element. The peek operation returns the top element without removing it, and the isEmpty operation checks if the stack is empty.

1.2 Stack Implementation using Linked List

Another common way to implement a stack is by using a singly-linked list. The advantage of using a linked list over an array is that it can grow and shrink dynamically according to the elements being added or removed.

// Stack implementation in C++ using a linked list
#include <iostream>
class Node {
  public:
    int data;
    Node* next;
};

class Stack {
  Node* top;

  public:
    Stack() { top = nullptr; }
    void push(int x);
    int pop();
    int peek();
    bool isEmpty();
};

void Stack::push(int x) {
  Node* newNode = new Node();
  newNode->data = x;
  newNode->next = top;
  top = newNode;
}

int Stack::pop() {
  if (isEmpty()) {
    std::cout << "Stack Underflow";
    return 0;
  } else {
    Node* temp = top;
    top = top->next;
    int poppedValue = temp->data;
    delete temp;
    return poppedValue;
  }
}

int Stack::peek() {
  if (isEmpty()) {
    std::cout << "Stack is Empty";
    return 0;
  } else {
    return top->data;
  }
}

bool Stack::isEmpty() {
  return (top == nullptr);
}

In this implementation, a linked list is used to store the stack elements. Each node in the linked list contains an integer data value and a pointer to the next node. The push operation adds a new node at the beginning of the list, representing the top of the stack. The pop operation removes the top node and returns its data value. The peek operation returns the data value of the top node without removing it, and the isEmpty operation checks if the stack is empty by checking if the top node is a nullptr.

2. Applications of Stack

Stacks have a wide range of applications in various domains of computer science, such as parsing expressions, managing function calls, and implementing algorithms. In this section, we will discuss some of these applications in detail.

2.1 Expression Evaluation and Parsing

Stacks play a crucial role in evaluating and parsing mathematical expressions. They can be used to convert an infix expression to postfix or prefix notation and to evaluate postfix or prefix expressions. The Shunting Yard Algorithm, which uses two stacks, is a popular method for parsing arithmetic expressions specified in infix notation.

2.1.1 Infix to Postfix Conversion

To convert an infix expression to postfix notation, we use a stack to store operators and parentheses. The algorithm scans the infix expression from left to right, and for each character encountered, it performs one of the following actions:

  1. If the character is an operand, append it to the output.
  2. If the character is an operator, pop operators from the stack and append them to the output until an operator with a lower precedence is found or the stack is empty. Then push the new operator onto the stack.
  3. If the character is an open parenthesis, push it onto the stack.
  4. If the character is a close parenthesis, pop operators from the stack and append them to the output until an open parenthesis is encountered. Pop and discard the open parenthesis.

After scanning the entire infix expression, pop any remaining operators from the stack and append them to the output. The resulting output string is the postfix notation of the given infix expression.

2.1.2 Postfix Expression Evaluation

To evaluate a postfix expression, we use a stack to store intermediate results. The algorithm scans the postfix expression from left to right, and for each character encountered, it performs one of the following actions:

  1. If the character is an operand, push it onto the stack.
  2. If the character is an operator, pop the top two operands from the stack, perform the operation, and push the result back onto the stack.

After scanning the entire postfix expression, the final result will be on the top of the stack.

2.2 Function Call Management

Stacks are used in programming languages to manage function calls and their associated memory. When a function is called, a new stack frame is created and pushed onto the call stack. The stack frame contains local variables, function parameters, and return addresses. When the function returns, its stack frame is popped from the call stack, and control is transferred back to the calling function. This mechanism allows for proper execution of nested and recursive function calls.

2.2.1 Activation Records and Stack Frames

An activation record, also known as a stack frame, is a data structure that contains information about a specific function call. It typically includes the following components:

  • Function parameters: The values passed as arguments to the function.
  • Local variables: Variables that are declared and used within the function.
  • Return address: The memory address to which the control should be transferred when the function returns.
  • Control link: A pointer to the previous stack frame, typically the calling function's stack frame.
  • Space for intermediate calculations: Memory space for temporary results and intermediate values during the execution of the function.

When a function is called, a new activation record is created and pushed onto the call stack. This ensures proper nesting of function calls and allows for the correct execution of recursive functions.

2.3 Depth-First Search (DFS) Algorithm

Stacks can be used to implement the depth-first search (DFS) algorithm, which is an important graph traversal technique. The DFS algorithm starts at a given vertex and explores as far as possible along each branch before backtracking. The algorithm can be implemented using an explicit stack data structure or through recursion, which implicitly uses the call stack.

// DFS implementation using an explicit stack
#include <iostream>
#include <list>
#include <stack>
class Graph {
  int V;
  std::list<int>* adj;

  public:
    Graph(int V);
    void addEdge(int v, int w);
    void DFS(int v);
};

Graph::Graph(int V) {
  this->V = V;
  adj = new std::list[V];
}

void Graph::addEdge(int v, int w) {
  adj[v].push_back(w);
}

void Graph::DFS(int v) {
  std::stack<int> stack;
  bool* visited = new bool[V];
  for (int i = 0; i < V; i++) visited[i] = false; 
  stack.push(v);
  visited[v] = true;

while (!stack.empty()) {
    int currentVertex = stack.top();
    stack.pop();
    std::cout << currentVertex << " ";

    for (auto i = adj[currentVertex].begin(); i != adj[currentVertex].end(); ++i) {
        if (!visited[*i]) {
            stack.push(*i);
            visited[*i] = true;
        }
    }
}
}

In this implementation, an explicit stack is used to store the vertices to be visited. The DFS algorithm starts at the given vertex, marks it as visited, and pushes it onto the stack. While the stack is not empty, the algorithm pops the top vertex, processes it, and pushes its unvisited neighbors onto the stack. This process continues until all reachable vertices have been visited and the stack is empty.

3. Relation between Stack and Other Data Structures

Stacks can be related to and used in conjunction with other data structures, such as queues, trees, and graphs. In this section, we will explore the relationships between stacks and these data structures and their applications in various algorithms and problem-solving scenarios.

3.1 Stack and Queue

While both stacks and queues are linear data structures, they have different operational principles. A stack follows the LIFO (Last In First Out) principle, whereas a queue follows the FIFO (First In First Out) principle. However, it is possible to simulate the behavior of one data structure using the other.

3.1.1 Implementing a Queue using Two Stacks

A queue can be implemented using two stacks (S1 and S2) with the following algorithm:

  1. To enqueue an element, push it onto stack S1.
  2. To dequeue an element, perform the following steps:
    1. If both stacks are empty, the queue is empty, and there is no element to dequeue.
    2. If stack S2 is empty, pop all elements from stack S1 and push them onto stack S2.
    3. Pop the top element from stack S2, which is the dequeued element.

The intuition behind this approach is that elements enqueued onto stack S1 will be in reverse order when transferred to stack S2. Popping from stack S2 will then result in the original order being preserved, as required by the queue's FIFO principle.

3.2 Stack and Trees

Stacks are often used in conjunction with tree data structures to perform various traversal algorithms. The most common tree traversal algorithms are depth-first traversals, such as inorder, preorder, and postorder traversals. Stacks can be used in both recursive and iterative implementations of these algorithms.

3.2.1 Iterative Inorder Tree Traversal

To perform an iterative inorder tree traversal using a stack, follow these steps:

  1. Initialize an empty stack.
  2. Push the root node onto the stack and set the current node to the root.
  3. While the stack is not empty or the current node is not null, perform the following steps:
    1. If the current node is not null, push it onto the stack and move to its left child.
    2. If the current node is null, pop a node from the stack, process it, and set the current node to its right child.

This algorithm simulates the inorder traversal of a binary tree without using recursion, which would implicitly use the call stack.

3.3 Stack and Graphs

As mentioned earlier, stacks can be used to implement graph traversal algorithms such as depth-first search (DFS). They can also be used in other graph algorithms, such as topological sorting and finding strongly connected components in a directed graph.

3.3.1 Topological Sorting

Topological sorting is an algorithm that linearly orders the vertices of a directed acyclic graph (DAG) such that for every directed edge (u, v), vertex u comes before vertex v in the ordering. The algorithm can be implemented using a modified depth-first search with a stack:

  1. Perform a depth-first search on the graph and push vertices onto the stack as they finish their recursion (i.e., when all their descendants have been visited).
  2. Pop vertices from the stack to obtain the topological order.

This algorithm works because a vertex is only pushed onto the stack after all its descendants have been visited, ensuring that the vertex comes before its descendants in the topological order.

3.3.2 Strongly Connected Components

Strongly connected components (SCCs) are subgraphs of a directed graph where each vertex is reachable from every other vertex within the same SCC. Tarjan's algorithm is a popular method for finding SCCs, and it uses a stack and depth-first search to achieve this.

The algorithm maintains a depth-first search tree, assigning a unique index to each vertex, along with a low-link value, which is the smallest index reachable from the vertex. A stack is used to keep track of vertices that have not yet been assigned to an SCC. When the low-link value of a vertex is equal to its index, it forms the root of an SCC, and all vertices on the stack up to and including the root are part of the same SCC.

4. Tricky and Technical Aspects of Stack

In this section, we will discuss some of the more advanced and technical aspects of stacks, including memory management, stack overflow, and stack frame optimizations.

4.1 Memory Management

When using a stack, especially in programming languages that do not support automatic memory management, it is essential to allocate and deallocate memory appropriately. Memory leaks can occur if memory is not freed when elements are popped from the stack. In languages with garbage collection, such as Java, this is less of a concern, as unused memory will be automatically reclaimed by the garbage collector.

In C++, memory management for a stack implemented using a linked list can be handled using the destructor and copy constructor, ensuring proper allocation and deallocation of memory as elements are added and removed from the stack.

4.2 Stack Overflow

Stack overflow occurs when the stack size exceeds its maximum capacity. This can happen in two scenarios:

  1. When using a statically-allocated stack, an overflow occurs when the number of elements pushed onto the stack exceeds its fixed size. This can lead to data corruption and program crashes, as the overflowed data may overwrite adjacent memory locations.
  2. When using the call stack for recursion, an overflow occurs when the depth of recursion exceeds the available memory for stack frames. This typically results in a program crash or an error message indicating that the maximum recursion depth has been reached.

To prevent stack overflow, it is essential to carefully manage stack size, ensure proper error handling, and avoid excessive recursion. Using dynamic data structures such as linked lists can help avoid overflow in explicitly implemented stacks by allowing the stack to grow and shrink as needed.

4.3 Stack Frame Optimizations

Compiler optimizations can help reduce the overhead of stack frame management during function calls. Some of these optimizations include:

These optimizations can help improve the performance of programs that rely heavily on function calls and recursion. However, it is important to note that not all compilers or programming languages support these optimizations, and the degree to which they are applied may vary depending on the specific implementation.

6. Advanced Stack Applications

In this section, we will explore some advanced applications of stacks, such as backtracking, memory management in programming languages, and parallel programming.

6.1 Backtracking

Backtracking is a general algorithm for finding all or some solutions to a problem that incrementally builds candidates to the solutions and abandons a candidate ("backtracks") as soon as it determines that the candidate cannot be extended to a valid solution. Stacks are often used to store partial solutions in backtracking algorithms.

Some common problems that can be solved using backtracking with stacks include:

In these problems, stacks can be used to store partial solutions, and the algorithm backtracks by popping elements from the stack whenever it reaches an invalid or incomplete solution.

6.2 Memory Management in Programming Languages

Many programming languages, such as C, C++, Java, and Python, use a combination of stack and heap memory to manage memory allocation and deallocation for variables and objects. The stack memory is used for static memory allocation, such as function call frames and local variables, while the heap memory is used for dynamic memory allocation, such as objects and arrays created during runtime.

Understanding the role of the stack in memory management is crucial for writing efficient code and avoiding memory-related issues such as stack overflow and memory leaks. By managing the size of the stack and the use of stack frames, programmers can optimize the performance and memory usage of their programs.

6.3 Parallel Programming

In parallel programming, multiple threads or processes work concurrently to execute tasks and solve problems. Stacks can be used in parallel programming for various purposes, such as managing the call stack for each thread, storing intermediate results, or implementing thread-safe data structures.

When using stacks in parallel programming, it is essential to consider synchronization and contention issues. For example, when multiple threads access a shared stack, they may need to lock the stack to avoid race conditions and ensure proper operation. This can be achieved using various synchronization techniques, such as mutexes, semaphores, or atomic operations.

Another consideration in parallel programming with stacks is the design of efficient, lock-free, or wait-free stack data structures that allow for high concurrency and low contention. These data structures can improve the performance and scalability of parallel programs by minimizing the overhead of synchronization.

6.4 Coroutine and Stackful Coroutine

Coroutines are a general control structure that allows the flow of control to be cooperatively passed between two different routines without returning. Stackful coroutines, also known as asymmetric coroutines, maintain their own stack for each coroutine, allowing for more advanced control flow and non-linear execution.

Stackful coroutines are particularly useful in implementing cooperative multitasking, where multiple tasks can run concurrently without the need for preemptive context switching. Stacks are essential in stackful coroutines, as each coroutine has its own stack for managing function calls, local variables, and control flow.

Some programming languages, such as Lua and Python, provide support for stackful coroutines through libraries or language constructs. In these languages, stacks play a crucial role in enabling advanced control flow and concurrency patterns.

7. Relation between Stack and Other Data Structures

In this section, we will explore the relationship between stacks and other data structures such as trees, deques, and queues, and how stacks can be used in conjunction with these data structures to solve problems and implement algorithms.

7.1 Stack and Deque

A deque (short for double-ended queue) is a linear data structure that allows elements to be added or removed from both ends efficiently. Deques can be seen as a generalization of both stacks and queues, as they support LIFO (Last In First Out) and FIFO (First In First Out) operations.

Stacks can be easily implemented using a deque by restricting insertions and deletions to one end only. Similarly, a deque can be simulated using two stacks with appropriate operations to maintain the elements in the correct order. Understanding the relationship between stacks and deques is essential for designing efficient algorithms and data structures that require both LIFO and FIFO operations.

7.2 Stack and Priority Queue

A priority queue is a data structure that supports efficiently inserting elements and retrieving the element with the highest priority. Unlike stacks, which follow the LIFO principle, priority queues order elements based on their priority rather than their insertion order.

Priority queues can be implemented using various data structures, such as binary heaps, Fibonacci heaps, or even stacks. When using stacks to implement a priority queue, additional data structures and algorithms may be required to maintain the elements in the correct order based on their priority. For example, two stacks can be used to implement a priority queue by maintaining a sorted order of elements, with one stack holding the minimum elements and the other holding the maximum elements.

Understanding the relationship between stacks and priority queues is essential for designing efficient algorithms that require priority-based element retrieval, such as Dijkstra's shortest path algorithm or the A* search algorithm.

7.3 Stack and Binary Search Tree

Binary search trees (BSTs) are tree data structures that maintain a sorted order of elements, allowing for efficient search, insert, and delete operations. Stacks can be used in conjunction with binary search trees to implement various tree traversal algorithms, such as inorder, preorder, and postorder traversals.

As previously mentioned in section 3.2, stacks can be used in both recursive and iterative implementations of these traversal algorithms. By understanding the relationship between stacks and binary search trees, one can design efficient algorithms for tree operations and problem-solving that involve sorted data structures.

8. Stack and Graph Algorithms

Stacks can be used in conjunction with graph algorithms to solve various problems and improve the efficiency of existing graph algorithms. In this section, we will discuss a few graph algorithms that can benefit from the use of stacks.

8.1 Depth-First Search with Iterative Deepening

Depth-First Search (DFS) is a graph traversal algorithm that explores the vertices of a graph in a depthward motion, visiting a vertex's children before its siblings. DFS can be implemented both recursively and iteratively using a stack. Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search (IDDFS) is a combination of DFS and Breadth-First Search (BFS) that performs DFS up to a certain depth, then increases the depth limit and repeats the process until the desired node is found or the entire graph has been traversed.

IDDFS can be more efficient than regular DFS for searching large graphs with a small solution depth, as it combines the space efficiency of DFS with the optimal search properties of BFS. Using a stack to implement IDDFS allows for efficient traversal of the graph while maintaining a low memory footprint.

8.2 All-Pairs Shortest Paths

The all-pairs shortest paths problem involves finding the shortest paths between all pairs of vertices in a graph. The Floyd-Warshall algorithm is a popular solution to this problem, with a time complexity of O(n^3), where n is the number of vertices in the graph. However, an alternative solution using stacks can be employed to improve the efficiency of the algorithm for certain types of graphs.

The All-Pairs Shortest Paths with Stack (APSPS) algorithm uses a stack to keep track of intermediate vertices while traversing the graph. This allows the algorithm to avoid unnecessary calculations and reduce the overall time complexity. Although the worst-case time complexity of APSPS is still O(n^3), it can be significantly faster for sparse graphs with a small number of edges.

8.3 Maximum Flow

The maximum flow problem involves finding the maximum amount of flow that can be sent from a source vertex to a sink vertex in a flow network. The Ford-Fulkerson algorithm is a well-known method for solving the maximum flow problem, using augmenting paths to iteratively increase the flow until no more augmenting paths can be found.

Stacks can be used in the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm to implement DFS for finding augmenting paths in the residual graph. Using a stack for DFS in the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm can help reduce the memory overhead and improve the overall efficiency of the algorithm.

9. Stack in Compiler Design and Parsing

Stacks play a crucial role in compiler design and parsing, particularly in the process of syntax analysis and semantic analysis. In this section, we will discuss how stacks are used in these aspects of compiler design.

9.1 Stack in Syntax Analysis

Syntax analysis, also known as parsing, is the process of analyzing a sequence of tokens in a programming language to determine its grammatical structure. One of the most common parsing techniques is the top-down parsing method called Recursive Descent Parsing, which uses a set of recursive procedures to process the input.

Stacks can be used to implement a non-recursive variant of Recursive Descent Parsing called Predictive Parsing. Predictive Parsing uses a stack to keep track of the production rules and input symbols being processed. By using a stack, the parser can efficiently backtrack and try alternative production rules when necessary, allowing for a more efficient and flexible parsing process.

9.2 Stack in Semantic Analysis

Semantic analysis is the process of analyzing the meaning of a program's source code by checking for semantic errors, such as type mismatches and undeclared variables. Stacks are often used in semantic analysis to manage the symbol table, a data structure that stores information about identifiers (such as variables, functions, and types) in the program's scope.

As the compiler processes the source code, it encounters various scopes (e.g., function or block scopes) that may introduce new identifiers or hide existing ones. By using a stack to manage the symbol table, the compiler can efficiently handle the nesting of scopes and the visibility of identifiers, enabling accurate semantic analysis and error detection.

9.3 Stack in Intermediate Code Generation

Intermediate code generation is a stage in compiler design where the compiler generates an intermediate representation of the source code that is easier to optimize and translate to the target machine code. One of the most common intermediate representations is the Three-Address Code (TAC), which represents the program as a sequence of instructions with at most three operands.

Stacks can be used in the generation of TAC to manage the evaluation of expressions and the allocation of temporary variables. By using a stack, the compiler can efficiently evaluate complex expressions, generate intermediate code, and manage the lifetimes of temporary variables, leading to a more efficient and optimized intermediate representation.

10. Stack in Virtual Machines and Interpreters

Stacks play a vital role in the implementation of virtual machines and interpreters, which are used to execute programs written in high-level programming languages. In this section, we will discuss how stacks are utilized in virtual machines and interpreters for various purposes.

10.1 Stack-based Virtual Machines

Stack-based virtual machines, such as the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) and the .NET Common Language Runtime (CLR), use stacks as the primary means of managing the execution state and data manipulation during the execution of a program. In a stack-based virtual machine, operands are pushed onto the stack, and operations are performed by popping operands from the stack, processing them, and pushing the result back onto the stack.

Using a stack as the primary data structure in a virtual machine simplifies the implementation and allows for more efficient execution of programs. Stack-based virtual machines can also take advantage of various stack-based optimizations, such as constant folding and peephole optimization, to improve the performance of the executed code.

10.2 Stack in Interpreter Loop

Interpreters, such as those used for scripting languages like Python, JavaScript, and Lua, use a stack to manage the execution state and evaluate expressions during the interpretation of the program. The interpreter loop, also known as the Read-Eval-Print Loop (REPL), reads a line of code, evaluates it, and prints the result before reading the next line.

Stacks are used in the interpreter loop to manage the call stack, store local variables and intermediate results, and evaluate expressions. By using a stack, the interpreter can efficiently manage the execution state and evaluate complex expressions, allowing for the rapid execution of programs and interactive development in the REPL environment.

10.3 Stack in Bytecode Interpretation

Many interpreters and virtual machines use a bytecode representation of the program, which is a low-level, platform-independent representation of the source code. Bytecode interpreters, such as the Python Virtual Machine (PVM) and the Lua Virtual Machine (LVM), use stacks to manage the execution state, evaluate expressions, and perform operations during the interpretation of the bytecode.

Stacks are used to store operands, local variables, and intermediate results during the execution of bytecode instructions. By using a stack, the bytecode interpreter can efficiently manage the execution state and perform operations, leading to a more efficient and portable execution of the program across different platforms and environments.

11. Frequently Asked Questions

11.1 What is the difference between a stack and a heap?

A stack is a linear data structure that follows the LIFO principle, while a heap is a tree-based data structure that organizes elements based on their priorities or values. Stacks are used for managing function calls, local variables, and control flow, while heaps are used for dynamic memory allocation and implementing priority queues.

11.2 Can a stack overflow?

Yes, a stack can overflow when it reaches its maximum capacity. Stack overflow occurs when too many function calls or local variables are pushed onto the stack, causing it to exceed its available memory. Stack overflow can lead to program crashes or undefined behavior and is often the result of recursive function calls, infinite loops, or insufficient memory allocation.

11.3 Can stacks be implemented using other data structures?

Yes, stacks can be implemented using other data structures such as arrays, linked lists, or even other abstract data types like queues and deques. The choice of data structure for implementing a stack depends on the specific requirements and performance characteristics of the application.

12. Further Exploration

The study of stacks in algorithms and data structures is an essential aspect of computer science and software engineering. This article has provided a comprehensive overview of the stack data structure, its applications, and its relationship with other data structures. However, there are many more topics and techniques related to stacks that you can explore, including:

By delving deeper into these topics, you can gain a greater understanding of the intricacies of stacks, their applications, and their role in the broader field of computer science.

13. Conclusion

This article has provided an in-depth examination of the stack data structure and its various applications, from basic programming concepts to advanced algorithms and data structures. We have discussed the implementation of stacks using arrays and linked lists, as well as the relationship between stacks and other data structures such as queues, trees, and deques. We have also explored the use of stacks in compiler design, virtual machines, and interpreters, and their role in various graph algorithms. The knowledge and understanding gained from this article should serve as a solid foundation for further exploration and study in the field of computer science.